Standard measurement table

Introduction:
In the metric system of measurement, designations of multiples and sub-divisions of any unit may be deduced by combining with the name of the unit the prefixes like deka to, and kilo meaning, respectively, 10, 100, and 1000, and deci, centi, and milli, meaning, respectively, one-tenth, one-hundredth, and one-thousandth.

In scientific usage, it becomes convenient to measure multiples larger than 1000 and subdivisions smaller than one-thousandth. Therefore, the following prefixes have been introduced and these are recognized worlwide:

yotta,   (Y),      meaning 10²⁴            deci,    (d),        meaning 10^-1
zetta,   (Z),       meaning 10²¹            centi,   (c),        meaning 10^-2
exa,     (E),       meaning 10¹⁸            milli,    (m),       meaning 10^-3
peta,   (P),       meaning 10¹⁵            micro, (u),         meaning 10^-6
tera,    (T),       meaning 10¹²            nano,   (n),        meaning 10^-9
giga,   (G),       meaning 10⁹             pico,    (p),         meaning 10^-12
mega, (M),      meaning 10⁶             femto, (f),          meaning 10^-15
kilo,     (k),      meaning 10³             atto,     (a),        meaning 10^-18
hecto,  (h),       meaning 10²             zepto,  (z),        meaning 10^-21
deka,  (da),      meaning 10¹             yocto,  (y),        meaning 10^-24

Units of Length

10 millimeters (mm)  = 1 centimeter (cm)
10 centimeters          = 1 decimeter (dm) = 100 millimeters
10 decimeters           = 1 meter (m)
10 meters                  = 1 dekameter (dam)
10 dekameters          = 1 hectometer (hm)
10 hectometers         = 1 kilometer (km)

Units of Liquid Volume

10 milliliters (mL)       = 1 centiliter (cL)
10 centiliters              = 1 deciliter (dL)
10 deciliters               = 1 liter
10 liters                     = 1 dekaliter (daL)
10 dekaliters             = 1 hectoliter (hL)
10 hectoliters             = 1 kiloliter (kL)

Units of Area

100 square millimeters (mm²)         = 1 square centimeter (cm²)
100 square centimeters                  = 1 square decimeter (dm²)
100 square decimeters                   = 1 square meter (m²)
100 square meters                          = 1 square dekameter (dam²) = 1 are
100 square dekameters                  = 1 square hectometer (hm²) = 1 hectare (ha)
100 square hectometers                 = 1 square kilometer (km²)

Units of Mass

10 milligrams (mg)    = 1 centigram (cg)
10 centigrams           = 1 decigram (dg) = 100 milligrams
10 decigrams            = 1 gram (g)
10 grams                   = 1 dekagram (dag)
10 dekagrams           = 1 hectogram (hg)
10 hectograms          = 1 kilogram (kg)
1000 kilograms         = 1 megagram (Mg) or 1 metric ton(t)

kelvin scale definition

Introduction :
The Kelvin Scale or the absolute scale of temperature – Lord Kelvin devised a scale of temperature which is independent of the thermal property of the working substance. This scale is called Kelvin or absolute scale of temperature. The zero of this scale is the temperature at which the molecular motion ceases and average kinetic energy of molecules becomes zero. This temperature is called absolute zero. It is the lowest attainable temperature. No temperature can be less than this temperature. The temperature on this scale is represented by T and the unit is K i.e. Kelvin.

Relation between Celsius and Kelvin Scale

The size of 1 degree on Kelvin scale is the same as the size of 1 degree on Celsius scae i.e., the difference or change in temperature is the same on both the scales. The ice point 0 degree on the absolute scale is 273K and the steam point 100 degree Celsius is 373K. The absolute zero on this scale is thus corresponds to -273 degree Celsius.

Any temperature t degrees on the Celsius scale is equal to (273 + t) on the Kelvin scale.
And, since 100 Centigrade degrees (ice point is marked as 0 degrees and the steam point is marked as 100 degrees).= 180 Fahrenheit degrees

The relation between Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale is given by the formula,
Kelvin = [(°F-32) / (1.8)] + 273.15

Advantages of using kelvin scale

• If we keep the volume of a sample of gas constant, the pressure of the gas goes up in proportion to the Kelvin temperature. This is automatically holds good for an ideal gas; this is quite fortunate enough that many gases have almost  depict identical behavior, except at very low temperatures. 

•  For standard thermometers, we can change from ordinary mercury thermometers, which are convenient, to a gas thermometer. 

Thus a Kelvin scale is much more beneficial as compared to a Fahrenheit or Celsius scale

Discovery of Atom

Introduction 
The term atom has its origin from the Greek word ‘átomos’ which means indivisible or, uncuttable, something that cannot be divided further. Indian and Greek philosophers first proposed the concept of an atom as an indivisible component of matter. Chemists provided a physical basis for this idea in the 17th and 18th centuries, by showing that certain substances could not be further broken down by chemical methods.



      Picture of an atom 1

Discovery of atom

Way back in 300-400B C, Democritus and Epicurus the greatest Greek philosophers proposed that there were indivisible atoms having a size, weight and shape. They stated that everything in the universe was made of those indivisible atoms including human's body and soul.  They also suggested that in empty space atoms could move uniformly and they could also vibrate at random and turn.

In 1803 John Dalton, English instructor and philosopher, used this concept of atoms and explained that elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers. He also explained that certain gases dissolve better in water than others. He theorized that every element consists of atoms of a single type, and that these atoms can join together to form chemical compounds. Dalton is regarded the originator of modern atomic theory.

The atom is the simplest unit of matter which consists of a nucleus at the center and is surrounded by negatively charged particles called electrons. The nucleus consists of protons that are positively charged and neutrons that are neutral in charge. The electrons are bound to the nucleus with the electromagnetic force. Two or more atoms together form a molecule. If the atom has equal number of protons and electrons, it is called electrically neutral, however if the protons are more, the atom is called as positively charged and if electrons are more, it is called negatively charged.

However, during the end of 19th and early 20th centuries, physicists have discovered subatomic components and structure inside the atom, and thereby proved that the 'atom' was indeed divisible. Scientists have used many principles of quantum mechanics in order to explain the model of the atom.

Conclusion to the discovery of atom

The discovery of atom was the major milestone in science. This enabled the formulation of periodic table and brought major advancement in science.

Basic structure of an atom

Introduction

The atom is the building block of the substance; each and every thing is made up of atom. In earlier concept it was thought that atom was indivisible, with the advancement in the technology and after a lot of results and experiments it is now proved that atom can further be divided in to more fundamental particle. Ruther ford on the basis of his experiment of scattering of alpha particle through the gold foil drew following conclusions.

Basic structure of an atom

Most of the part of the atom is hollow, approximately all the mass of the atom is concentrated to a very small region called the nucleus compare to the atom the nucleus is very small, the radius of the atom is of the order of 10^-10 meter while the radius of the nucleus ids of the order of 10^-15 meter, therefore the nucleus is about 10^5th part of the atom.

Protons and the neutrons reside in the nucleus while electrons revolve round the nucleus in the different orbits. Bohr’s gave the idea of the stationary orbit, according to him the electrons move round the nucleus in the stationary orbit, the stationary orbits are those in which the angular momentum of the moving electrons is conserved , so it does not lose its energy, these stationary orbits are called energy levels , and are represented by the capital letters, K,L,M,N etc, according to 

Bohr’s scheme the maximum number of electron that can occupy a hell is given by the formula 2n² , where n is the number of shell, using this formula it is clear that the number of an electron that can be accommodated in 1, 2,3and4 shell is  2,8,18 and 32  respectively,

The shell is further divided in to sub shells and the sub shells are composed of the orbitals , there are different type of orbitals like s,p,d,,f,g etc, according to quantum mechanical model the electrons have dual nature they have both particle as well as the wave nature. They are like stationary waves’ round the atoms, and the orbital s are nothing but wave functions.

There are more fundamental particles which are discovered apart from the neutrons, protons and electrons , these are different types of mesons, neutrino quark etc.the scientific advancement is a continuous process and scientist are in the constant effort to find the ultimate particles called the god particles which are the building block of all kind of matter.

Argon atom

Argon is basically a Greek word, argos meaning lazy. It was suspected in 1785 that it was present in air by Henry Cavendish. Later it was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in 1894.

Introduction :
The Argon atom is the chemical element which is present in the eighteenth group of the periodic table. Argon atom symbol is Ar. It is having an atomic number 18 and atomic weight 39.948amu it’s equal to 40 amu. It belongs to eighteenth group, (viii A) period and it is a p-block element. It has 18 electrons and 18 protons and has 22 neutrons. Density of Argon atom is 1.784 kg/m^3. Argon atom belongs to noble gas series. It belongs to p–block is predicted by its electronic configuration. The electronic configuration is based on atomic number of an atom, so the electronic configuration of Argon atom is 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ o [Ne] 3s² 3p⁶, here the outermost electron present in the p-orbital so it belongs to p-block. It has cubic face centered crystal structure. It is diamagnetic in nature. It is the third noble gas.

Electron Shell model of Argon atom

It has 3 main isotopes; they are Ar-40, Ar-36, and Ar-38. Ar -39 is made by cosmic ray activity. Ar-40 is produced by neutron capture method from K -39 and also by alpha emission by calcium and Ar-37 is produced by the decay of Ca -40.

Physical properties of argon atom:

1. It is a non-metallic, colorless and odorless  gas at room temperature i.e. at 298K.
2. Its melting point and boiling point are 83.8K and 87.3K respectively.
3. It occupies about 1% of Earth’s atmosphere.
4. It is chemically inert so it does not react with any element or a molecule.
5. It is stored at high pressures.

Applications of argon atom:

Argon atom is used

1.     In  lighting due to its high stability AND it will not react with the filament in a bulb even under high temperatures

2.     Due to its inertness, it is used as inert gas shield in case of welding.

3.      In the manufacture of titanium as a non- reactive blanket and many more.

Aluminium atom

Introduction:
Aluminium atom is a silvery white member which belongs to the boron group element.  It has an atomic number 13 and Al is its symbol. Aluminium is the third most abundant metal in the Earth's crust, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid surface. Aluminium is reactive chemically to occur in nature as a free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different other minerals. Bauxite ore is the chief source of aluminium.

One of the remarkable properties of Aluminium atom is for its low density metal and for its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon named as passivation.

The property of Aluminium metal depends on Aluminium atoms present in it. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile and malleable metal of the 3^rd period. Its appearance ranges from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness. Aluminium is nonmagnetic metal. It is also insoluble in alcohol, in certain forms though it can be soluble in water. 7–11 MPa is the yield strength of pure aluminium, while aluminium alloys yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium atom has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel.

Face-centered cubic (fcc) structure is the atomic arrangement of Aluminium atoms.  Aluminium metal has a stacking -fault energy of approximately 200 mJ/m².

Characteristics of aluminium atom

Aluminium is a metal which is present in 13th (lllA) group and 3^rd period of the periodic table. It has the electronic configuration 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p. Aluminium has the Oxidation state of +1,+2, and +3.

The outer three electrons occupy three s²p hybrid orbitals that point in orthogonal directions. These electrons easily form covalent bonds, as in anhydrous AlCl₃. This compound easily sublimates, showing that it is not ionic, and is partially hydrolyzed by H₂O to release HCl gas. It cannot be formed by heating the hydrated form to drive off H₂O.

3s²3p² 3p  is the spectroscopic ground state. The resonance line is at 396.15 nm of Aluminium atom, that’s why aluminium atom is not excited in the flame and gives it no color. When the atom is excited, most of the lines are in the red or infrared in nature. Aluminium is in column IIIA of the modern periodic table, which includes boron, aluminium, gallium, indium and thallium. Aluminium atom is the only common element in the group, and is considerably different from the others in physical and chemical properties.

Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal among the metals. Relatively pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance and workability is more important than strength or hardness. A thin layer of aluminium can be deposited onto a flat surface by physical vapour deposition or chemical vapour deposition or other chemical means to form optical coatings and mirrors on the surfaces.

Applications of aluminium atom

Other uses of Aluminium Atom: 

• Transportation: Here Aluminium is used as body parts such as automobiles, aircrafts, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles etc. as sheet, castings etc.,
• Packaging of Food and other things are made by Aluminium foil.
• Construction of building materials. (Windows, doors, siding, building wire, equipments etc.)
• A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball bats, watches etc., are made from Aluminium atom.
• Street lighting poles, sailing ship mats, walking poles, roof cover etc., are made by strong Aluminium Rods.
• Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for equipment e.g. photographic equipment etc., are made from Aluminium.

Atomic number 68

Introduction :
The element in the periodic table with atomic number 68 is Erbium.  Erbium is a element which belongs to lanthanide series in the periodic table with atomic number 68 and the symbol is Er.  Naturally Erbium is found along with other elements on earth.  It is a rare earth element which is associated with mineral gadolinite from ytterby.  It has optical fluorescent properties which is useful in laser applications like laser optical amplifier. Glasses or crystals which are doped with the element atomic number 68 (erbium) are mainly used in amplification media.

Silvery white Erbium:                                         Erbium chloride showing pink fluorescense
                                                                        under sunlight
            

Occurrence of element with atomic number 68:
In the earth crust erbium has 2.8mg/kg concentration where as in sea water it has 0.9ng/L.  This element found bound with monazite sand ores.  The sources of erbium are xenotime and euxenite.

Monazite sand:



Isotopes of element with atomic number 68:
Erbium which occurs naturally is composed of 6 stable isotopes, Er-162, Er-164, Er-166, Er-167, Er-168, and Er-170 with Er-166 being the most abundant isotope.

Properties of Element with atomic number 68:

Physical properties of Element with atomic number 68:

1. It appears as silvery white but under sun light it shows pink fluorescence.
2. Erbium has density 9.006g/cm³.
3. It decomposes at 1802K.
4. It boils at 3141K.
5. Heat of fusion is 19.90kJ/mol.
6. Heat of vaporization is 280kJ/mol.
7. Specific heat capacity at 25⁰C is 28.12J/mol/K.
8. Below 19K it is ferromagnetic, between 19-80K it is antiferromagnetic and above 80K it is paramagnetic in nature.  

Chemical Properties of Erbium with atomic number 68:
1. Erbium metal burns to form erbium (III) oxide.
    4 Er + 3 O₂ → 2 Er₂O₃
2. It reacts slowly with cold water and quickly with hot water and forms erbium oxide.
    2 Er (s) + 6 H₂O (l) → 2 Er (OH) ₃ (aq) + 3 H₂ (g)
3. Erbium reacts with all the halogens
    2 Er (s) + 3 F₂ (g) → 2 ErF₃ (s) [pink]
    2 Er (s) + 3 Cl₂ (g) → 2 ErCl₃ (s) [violet]
    2 Er (s) + 3 Br₂ (g) → 2 ErBr₃ (s) [violet]
    2 Er (s) + 3 I₂ (g) → 2 ErI₃ (s) [violet]
4. Erbium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid forms yellow [Er (OH₂)₉]³⁺ hydration complexes
    2 Er (s) + 3 H₂SO₄ (aq) → 2 Er³⁺ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H₂ (g)

 Applications of element with atomic number 68:

1. Oxide erbium which has pink color is used as a colorant for glass, porcelain and cubic zirconia. These glasses are used in sunglasses and some jewelry.
2. These are used in neutron –absorbing  control rods.
3. When erbium is doped  with optical silica glass fibers, they are used widely in optical communications.
4. These are also used to create fiber lasers.
5. These are also used in metal welding and cutting applications.
6. Erbium ions have large variety  of medical applications.