Aluminium atom

Introduction:
Aluminium atom is a silvery white member which belongs to the boron group element.  It has an atomic number 13 and Al is its symbol. Aluminium is the third most abundant metal in the Earth's crust, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid surface. Aluminium is reactive chemically to occur in nature as a free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different other minerals. Bauxite ore is the chief source of aluminium.

One of the remarkable properties of Aluminium atom is for its low density metal and for its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon named as passivation.

The property of Aluminium metal depends on Aluminium atoms present in it. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile and malleable metal of the 3^rd period. Its appearance ranges from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness. Aluminium is nonmagnetic metal. It is also insoluble in alcohol, in certain forms though it can be soluble in water. 7–11 MPa is the yield strength of pure aluminium, while aluminium alloys yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium atom has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel.

Face-centered cubic (fcc) structure is the atomic arrangement of Aluminium atoms.  Aluminium metal has a stacking -fault energy of approximately 200 mJ/m².

Characteristics of aluminium atom

Aluminium is a metal which is present in 13th (lllA) group and 3^rd period of the periodic table. It has the electronic configuration 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p. Aluminium has the Oxidation state of +1,+2, and +3.

The outer three electrons occupy three s²p hybrid orbitals that point in orthogonal directions. These electrons easily form covalent bonds, as in anhydrous AlCl₃. This compound easily sublimates, showing that it is not ionic, and is partially hydrolyzed by H₂O to release HCl gas. It cannot be formed by heating the hydrated form to drive off H₂O.

3s²3p² 3p  is the spectroscopic ground state. The resonance line is at 396.15 nm of Aluminium atom, that’s why aluminium atom is not excited in the flame and gives it no color. When the atom is excited, most of the lines are in the red or infrared in nature. Aluminium is in column IIIA of the modern periodic table, which includes boron, aluminium, gallium, indium and thallium. Aluminium atom is the only common element in the group, and is considerably different from the others in physical and chemical properties.

Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal among the metals. Relatively pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance and workability is more important than strength or hardness. A thin layer of aluminium can be deposited onto a flat surface by physical vapour deposition or chemical vapour deposition or other chemical means to form optical coatings and mirrors on the surfaces.

Applications of aluminium atom

Other uses of Aluminium Atom: 

• Transportation: Here Aluminium is used as body parts such as automobiles, aircrafts, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles etc. as sheet, castings etc.,
• Packaging of Food and other things are made by Aluminium foil.
• Construction of building materials. (Windows, doors, siding, building wire, equipments etc.)
• A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball bats, watches etc., are made from Aluminium atom.
• Street lighting poles, sailing ship mats, walking poles, roof cover etc., are made by strong Aluminium Rods.
• Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for equipment e.g. photographic equipment etc., are made from Aluminium.

Atomic number 68

Introduction :
The element in the periodic table with atomic number 68 is Erbium.  Erbium is a element which belongs to lanthanide series in the periodic table with atomic number 68 and the symbol is Er.  Naturally Erbium is found along with other elements on earth.  It is a rare earth element which is associated with mineral gadolinite from ytterby.  It has optical fluorescent properties which is useful in laser applications like laser optical amplifier. Glasses or crystals which are doped with the element atomic number 68 (erbium) are mainly used in amplification media.

Silvery white Erbium:                                         Erbium chloride showing pink fluorescense
                                                                        under sunlight
            

Occurrence of element with atomic number 68:
In the earth crust erbium has 2.8mg/kg concentration where as in sea water it has 0.9ng/L.  This element found bound with monazite sand ores.  The sources of erbium are xenotime and euxenite.

Monazite sand:



Isotopes of element with atomic number 68:
Erbium which occurs naturally is composed of 6 stable isotopes, Er-162, Er-164, Er-166, Er-167, Er-168, and Er-170 with Er-166 being the most abundant isotope.

Properties of Element with atomic number 68:

Physical properties of Element with atomic number 68:

1. It appears as silvery white but under sun light it shows pink fluorescence.
2. Erbium has density 9.006g/cm³.
3. It decomposes at 1802K.
4. It boils at 3141K.
5. Heat of fusion is 19.90kJ/mol.
6. Heat of vaporization is 280kJ/mol.
7. Specific heat capacity at 25⁰C is 28.12J/mol/K.
8. Below 19K it is ferromagnetic, between 19-80K it is antiferromagnetic and above 80K it is paramagnetic in nature.  

Chemical Properties of Erbium with atomic number 68:
1. Erbium metal burns to form erbium (III) oxide.
    4 Er + 3 O₂ → 2 Er₂O₃
2. It reacts slowly with cold water and quickly with hot water and forms erbium oxide.
    2 Er (s) + 6 H₂O (l) → 2 Er (OH) ₃ (aq) + 3 H₂ (g)
3. Erbium reacts with all the halogens
    2 Er (s) + 3 F₂ (g) → 2 ErF₃ (s) [pink]
    2 Er (s) + 3 Cl₂ (g) → 2 ErCl₃ (s) [violet]
    2 Er (s) + 3 Br₂ (g) → 2 ErBr₃ (s) [violet]
    2 Er (s) + 3 I₂ (g) → 2 ErI₃ (s) [violet]
4. Erbium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid forms yellow [Er (OH₂)₉]³⁺ hydration complexes
    2 Er (s) + 3 H₂SO₄ (aq) → 2 Er³⁺ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H₂ (g)

 Applications of element with atomic number 68:

1. Oxide erbium which has pink color is used as a colorant for glass, porcelain and cubic zirconia. These glasses are used in sunglasses and some jewelry.
2. These are used in neutron –absorbing  control rods.
3. When erbium is doped  with optical silica glass fibers, they are used widely in optical communications.
4. These are also used to create fiber lasers.
5. These are also used in metal welding and cutting applications.
6. Erbium ions have large variety  of medical applications.

Atomic Number 4

Introduction :
Beryllium is the compound which as atomic number 4 and mass number 9.01218.  Beryllium has electronic configuration 1s², 2s².  Beryllium has oxidation state +2.  Group 2 elements are Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra are alkaline earth elements.  Atomic number 4 is a exception : it does not react with water or steam, and its halides are co-valent bond with beryllium.  All the alkaline earth metal as two electrons in the outermost shell, so filled electron shell is achieved by the lose of two electrons to form doubly charged positive ions.  Atomic number 4 is a bivalent element.  It is found naturally only combined with other minerals.  Notable gemstone which has Atomic number 4 include beryl (aquamarine, emerald) and chrysoberyl.  Atomic number is a steel – gray, strong,  light weight brittle alkaline earth metal.



 Beryllium (White grey metal).

1)      Atomic Radius of Group 2 elements: Atomic radius increases down the group.  Atomic radius of Ra is less than Ba.

Element	Be	Mg	Ca	Sr	Ba	Ra
A.R.(pm)	112	160	197	211	222	215

   Where A.R.  = Atomic Radius in pico metre.

2)      Density of beryllium is 1.848g/cm³.

3)      Ionisation energy (I.E.) of Atomic number 4:
       1^st I.E.  =     899.5 KJ/mol.
       2^nd I.E.  =   1757.7 KJ/mol.
       3^rd I.E.  =  14848.7KJ/mol.
        3^rd I.E. is very large because the electron is present near to the nucleous and strongly binded to the nucleous.  Therefore it requires more energy to remove that electron which is ns² configuration.

4)      Elecrtropositive character of  Group 2 elements: Electropositive character increases down the group.

5)      Metallic properties of Atomic number 4: Atomic number 4 has low density (1.85 times that of water), high melting point= 1287⁰C.  High temperature stability and low co-efficient of thermal expansion, These conditions is suitable for aerospace material,  Atomic number 4 is a important component of planned space telescope because of its relatively high transparency to X-ray.

6)Reaction of Atomic number 4 with air: Beryllium does not burn unless it is in the form of dust or powder.  Be has a thin layer of Beryllium oxide on its surface which prevent any new oxygen getting at the underlying Be to react.
               2Be_(s)      +    O_2(g)     →       2BeO_(s)

7)      Diagonal relationship of Atomic number 4: Beryllium shows diagonal relationship with Aluminium.  It is the similarity between the first element of a group with the second element in the next higher group.

8)      Ores of Beryllium:
a)      Betrandite      (Be₄si₂O₇(OH)₂)
b)      Beryl              (Al₂Be₃Si₆O₁₈)
c)      Chrysoberyl   (Al₂BeO₄)
d)     Phenakite        (Be₂SiO₄)
      Precious form of Beryl are aquamarine, bixbite and emerald.

Nomenclature of elements with atomic number > 100

Introduction :
In the periodic table the elements are arranged in the order of the atomic number.  Atomic number is nothing but it is the number of proton or number of electron in the neutral atom. It is denoted by the letter Z.

The modern periodic law states that “ the physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.”
Periods constitutes a series of elements whose atoms have the same number of  electron shell i.e., principal quantum number (n). There are seven periods and each period starts with a different principal quantum number.

Transuranium elements are elements beyond uranium (Z=92) they all synthethic elements.   Element with atomic number 100 is called as Fermium and the elements beyond these element in the periodic table is called as transfermium element.  The element after atomic number 100 is normally named as famous scientist.  But there is a lot of ambiguity in the names.  In each country the name will differ.  Some of the elements will be having more than one names

For example Kurchatovium with atomic number 104 is also called as Rutherfordium
Neilsbohrium also known as Borium has atomic number of 107.

The discovererc of these elements normally decide the name of the element.  Since same element can be made in the laboratory by more htan one scientist more than one name existed

Some other common names or nomenclature of elements with atomic number > 100 are given as

Atomic Number	Name
Z = 105	Dubnium
Z = 106	Seaborgium
Z = 108	Hassnium
Z = 109	Meiternium

IUPAC nomeclature of elements with atomic number > 100

To over come this ambiguity International Union of Pure and Applied Science (IUPAC) has recommended a nomeclature for elements with atomic number greater than 100.
IUPAC has given the name using the Latin words for their numbers.  The root words for the names is given in the table

Numerical	Root Name
0	nil
1	un
2	bi
3	tri
4	quad
5	pent
6	hex
7	sept
8	oct
9	en

Name (Nomenclature) of some of the elements with atomic number > 100

Atomic number	Name of the element	Symbol
Z = 101	Unnilunnium	Unu
Z = 102	Unnilbium	Unb
Z = 103	Unniltrium	Unt
Z = 104	Unnilquadium	Unq
Z = 105	Unnilpentium	Unp
Z = 106	Unnilhexium	Unh
Z = 107	Unnilseptium	Uns
Z = 108	Unniloctium	Uno
Z = 109	Unnilennium	Une
Z = 110	Ununnilium	Uun
Z = 111	Unununium	Uuu
Z = 112	Ununbium	Uub
Z = 113	Ununtrium	Uut
Z = 114	Ununquadium	Uuq
Z = 115	Ununpentium	Uup
Z = 116	Ununhexium	Uuh
Z = 117	Ununseptium	Uus
Z = 118	Ununoctium	Uuo
Z = 119	Ununennium	Uue
Z = 120	Unbinilium	Ubn

Colligative properties and determination of molar mass

Introduction :

The vapour pressure of solution decrease when a non volatile solution is added to a volation solvent. There are many properties of solution which are connected with this decreasing of vapour pressure. These are the relatively of vapour pressure of the solvent, depression of freezing points of the solvent. Elevation of the boiling point of the solvent, osmotic pressure of the solution. Everyone these of the property depend on the numeral of solute particle irrespective of their environment relative.

Relative lowering of vapour pressure:

In colligative properties and determination of molar mass, the vapour pressure of a solvent in solution is less than that of the pure solvent. Raoult recognized that the lower of vapour pressure depends simply on the concentration of the solute particles and it is dependent of their individuality.

`p_(1)=x_(1)p_(1)^(0)`

The reaction of the colligative properties in the vapour pressure of solvent is given as:

`Deltap_(1)=p_(1)^(0)-p_(1)=p_(1)^(0)-p_(1)^(0)x_(1)`

           =`p_(1)^(0)(1-x_(2))`

In a solution colligative properties containing several non volatile solutions, the lowering of the vapour pressure depends sum of the mole fraction of different solutions.

`(Deltap_(1))/(p_(1)^(0))` =`(p_(1^(0))-p_(1))/(p_(1)^(0))` =`x_(2)`

                The expression on the left hand side of the equation as mentioned earlier is called relative lowering of vapour force and is equal to the mole division of the solution of the colligative properties. The above equation can be determinations as:

`(p_(1)^(0)-p_(1))/(p_(1)^(0))` =`(n_(2))/(n_(1)+n_(2))`

                Here n₁ and n₂ are the number of mole of solvent and solute respectively present in the solution.

For dilute solution n₂<<n₁ hence neglection n₂ in the denominator we have

`(p_(1)^(0)-p_(1))/(p_(1)^(0))` =`(w_(2)xxM_(1))/(M_(2)xxW_(1))`

Here w₁ and w₂ are the mass and M₁ and M₂ are the molar mass of the solvent and solute correspondingly.

Elevation of boiling point:

In the colligative determination of molar mass, the vapour pressure of a liquid increase with enhance of temperature.It boils at the warmth at which its vapour pressure is identical to the atmospheric strain. The determination molar boiling point of a solution is always higher than that of the boiling point of the pure solvent.

Depression of freezing points:

The lowering vapour pressure of a solution cause a lowering of the freezing points compared to that of the determination  pure solvent in molar mass. The freezing points of the substance, the solids phase are the dynamic equilibrium with the liquid phases. The freezing points of the substance may be defined as temperature at which the vapour pressure of the substance in its liquid phase is equal to the vapour pressure in the solids state.

Mole chemistry

Introduction:
All substance is made up of smallest particle, called atom. In chemistry, the smallest particle, used for calculation, is said to be a mole. Any chemical equation or a chemical expression is given with moles of a substance under consideration.

Mole Definition:
Mole is the smallest unit used in all calculations in chemistry. Mole is a unit of measurement, which gives the same number of chemical entities (atoms, molecules, ions, electrons), as in number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon.

Mole concept is used in calculation of concentrations of solutions, in the calculation of molecular mass, etc.

Molar mass of a substance is defined as “mass per mole” of a substance.
Mole of a substance can also be defined as: “one mole of a substance contains Avogadro number of molecules or atoms”.
The value of Avogadro’s number is – 6.023 x 10²³
This is given by:

Mole =
Mole Calculation

Many calculations, regarding a chemical compound can be obtained from the mole concept.
Mole of a substance is used to calculate-
a.     Grams of a substance, if molar mass is known.
b.     Molar mass of a substance, if grams are known.
c.      Molarity, molality, mole fraction.
d.     Number of atoms present, with the help of Avogadro’s number.

Thus, moles play a very important role in chemical calculations.

Chemistry Mole Problems-
Example – 1:
A sample of magnesium hydroxide contains 12 grams of the substance. Calculate the number of moles of Mg(OH)₂ present.
Answer:
Molar mass of Magnesium hydroxide is: 58.32

Moles of Magnesium hydroxide = Mass in grams / Molar mass
                                                         = 12 grams / 58.32 grams/mole
                                                        = 0.206 moles.

Example – 2
13.65 moles of methane gas was obtained in a reaction. Find the mass in grams of methane.

Answer:
Molar mass of methane is 16.04 grams/mole.
Moles of methane = Grams of methane / Molar mass
Grams of methane = Moles of methane x Molar mass
                                    = 13.65 moles x 16.04 grams / mole
                                    =   218.94 grams of methane
Mole Problems Chemistry
Finding number of atoms, with Avogadro number
Example – 3
Calculate the number of atoms present in 4.2 moles of Sodium.
Answer:

1 Mole of a substance contains Avogadro number of atoms/molecules/ions.
Therefore, Avogadro’s constant =

We have – 4.2 moles of Sodium.

Number of atoms of Sodium present =


    4.2 moles of Na x   = 25.29 x 10²³ atoms of Na

Example – 4
 There are 3.01 x 10³² molecules of carbon dioxide present. Calculate:

i)                   Number of moles

ii)                Number of grams of CO₂.

Answer:

i)  To calculate the number of moles-

Moles of Carbon dioxide

= 3.01 x 10³² atoms of CO₂ x

= 4.99 x 10⁹ moles of Carbon dioxide

ii)                 To calculate the mass in grams of carbon dioxide –

Mass in grams = Moles of CO2 x Molar mass

                          = 4.99 x 10⁹moles x 44 grams / mole

                           = 219.56 x 10⁹ grams of Carbon dioxide

Molar Mass

Two very important entities of elements that recognise its characteristics are its atomic number and atomic mass. Similarly, mol mass of a compound is very important and is used in almost all stoichiometric calculations of a compound.

Molar Mass Definition

Molecular mass of a compound is the sum of atomic masses of all elements present in it.

Molecular mass is a physical property of a compound. It is denoted by M.

Molar Mass-

Molecular mass can also be calculated using the mass of a substance and the amount of substance present in moles.

Molecular mass = Grams of a substance / Moles

Mol mass is expressed in grams per mole.

Mol mass is used to find the moles of a substance, when its mass is given.

How to Calculate Molar Mass –

Molar mass of a substance can be found from the atomic masses of the elements present in it. Atomic masses of the individual elements can be obtained from the periodic table.

To calculate mol mass, we need to follow the following steps:

1. Write the Formula for Molar Mass of the compound whose mol mass is to be calculated.

Example – Magnesium chloride

MgCl₂

2. Find the subscripts/number of each element present in the compound.

1 x Mg + 2 x Cl

3. Multiply the number of each element present with the atomic mass of that element.

1 x 24.305 (Mg) 2 x 35.453 (Cl)

= 24.305 = 70.906

4. Finally, put all the atomic masses and their multiplied values together and sum it up.

Mg + 2 x Cl

= 24.305 + 70.906

= 95.211 grams/mole

Molar Mass of Water –

Formula of water is H₂O.

To calculate the mol mass of water, we need to have the atomic masses of hydrogen and oxygen.

Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1.008 grams/mole

Atomic mass of Oxygen = 15.994 grams /mole

There are two moles of Hydrogen. Thus, 2 x 1.008 = 2.016

Mol mass of water = 2.016 + 15.994 = 18.01 grams/mole.

Example of molar mass calculations:

To calculate the mol mass of Sodium hydroxide:

Formula of sodium hydroxide is NaOH

There are 1 mole of sodium, Na, 1 mole of hydrogen, and 1 mole of Oxygen.

To find the mol mass, we can add the atomic masses of all the elements.

Atomic mass of Sodium = 22.989 grams/mole

Atomic mass of oxygen = 15.994 grams/mole

Atomic mass of Hydrogen = 1.008 grams/mole

Mol mass of Sodium hydroxide = Na + O + H

= 22.989 + 15.994 + 1.008 = 39.991 grams/mole.

Mol mass of sodium hydroxide is taken approximately for calculations as 40 grams/mole.